1. Deciding who needs to be tested

A paternity test is carried out to determine whether an alleged father is in fact the biological father of a particular child. In this case the standard paternity test, where samples from the child, mother and alleged father are tested, produces results with a very high degree of certainty.

The motherless paternity test is also frequently performed, particularly in cases where the mother refuses to consent to perform the test. In this case only samples from the child and alleged father are tested. The motherless test practically always attains levels of certainty similar to the standard paternity test, and is generally just as conclusive.

If the paternity of more than one child is in question it is generally less expensive to combine the paternity tests of brothers and sisters. Such a test would require samples from the alleged father, all the siblings involved, and the mother (unless it is a motherless test).

Paternity tests that include samples from more than one alleged father can be carried out if more than one possible father consents to be tested. A paternity test excludes non-biological fathers with 100% certainty, so if all possible fathers are tested the real biological father is identified with 100% certainty. This method is often employed to increase the certainty of a paternity test in the special situation where alleged fathers are related.

The maternity test is similar in principle to the paternity test and is used to establish whether an alleged mother is in fact the biological mother of a particular child. The test is often employed in the case of an adopted child wishing to identify its real mother, in situations when there is a suspicion of a baby being switched at birth, and in other cases where the biological maternity of a mother is disputed. The test is performed on samples from the child, the alleged mother (or alleged mothers if there is more than one woman concerned), and where possible, the father.

The DNA relationship test is similar to the paternity test but may be applied in a broader sense to test familial relationships. In such cases samples from one or more alleged relatives and from one or more family members would be tested. The precise sampling requirements have to be determined depending on specifics of the case.

It is also common for a person to obtain a copy of his or her genetic profile for safekeeping. This can be used whenever the need may arise for possible future identification or verification of the person or the person's relatives. Possible uses include the identification of remains following accidental death and investigation of inheritance claims by alleged relatives.

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2. Choosing between a Legal or Curiosity Paternity Test

Two main types of paternity tests are generally offered, the Legal (or Official) paternity test and the Curiosity paternity test. As long as the correct procedure is followed for sample collection there should be no difference in the accuracy and validity of the results obtained by either of these two.

The main difference between the two tests lies in the admissibility of the results as evidence in the Courts of Law. The requirements for a Legal paternity test to be officially recognised in Court vary between countries, but in general there must be an independent third person, usually a lawyer or a court-appointed expert, who can testify that each of the samples tested in the laboratory really originated from the corresponding donor, and who can provide evidence that at no point could the samples have been switched or contaminated. The necessary involvement of a third person and the additional procedural steps that need to be employed, both by the legal representative and by the laboratory, naturally make the Legal paternity test more expensive. It is also usually necessary for the individuals choosing the Legal test to travel to the office or facility of the legal representative for the test to be performed.

Sample collection for the Curiosity paternity test can generally be carried out at home by the donors themselves. The procedure is easy to understand and can be performed by practically anybody.

In a few words, the choice between a Curiosity and a Legal paternity test depends on the intention of using the results as evidence in a legal dispute. If chances of this are low, then the Curiosity test offers equally valid results with more convenience and at a lower price.

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3. Picking a Laboratory

The three main factors that must be taken into consideration when selecting a laboratory to perform your test are: quality, turn around time and price.

Quality

Quality is reflected primarily in the accreditation of the laboratory. Make sure to pick a laboratory that is adequately accredited. The highest level of accreditation is ISO17025 and AABB accreditation. This accreditation ensures that the laboratory has gone through a rigorous inspection procedure to ensure that its standard operating procedures are of a high level of quality and reliability.

The quality and accuracy of the test also is important. Make sure that the test is being performed on 16 microsatellite markers which is the current gold standard for paternity testing. These markers are DNA fragments in which the same short sequence of DNA is repeated several times, and the number of DNA sequence repetitions (or frequency) is highly variable within the general population but strongly conserved from parent to child. Nowadays most laboratories test for 16 markers to establish paternity. The higher the number of markers tested the more reliable the result, therefore it is advisable to select a laboratory that performs testing with this minimum number of markers.

Turnaround time

When choosing a laboratory make sure that you are given information about the average and maximum period it takes for a result to be issued. A 5 to10 day turnaround time is reasonable, although certain laboratories offer an even faster service. Many laboratories also offer an express service, but charge significantly extra for this.

Cost

The prices for a standard curiosity paternity test range from about 175 to 350 euro. With paternity tests, cheaper does not necessarily mean poorer quality or slower service. However, it is always wise to make sure you are comfortable with a laboratory's quality and services before choosing a less expensive option.
Tips on selecting a service provider
• Is the laboratory doing the testing internationally accredited?
• Is the test accurate and reliable?
• Is the turnaround time acceptable?
• Is the price acceptable?

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4. Obtaining a sampling kit

The first decision that must be made involves the type of samples to collect. The most common and reliable sample types are saliva (also called an oral swab, mouth swab or buccal swab). As long as the correct procedure for sample collection is followed and the right precautions are taken, there will be no problem of obtaining adequate amounts of DNA to do the test.

Blood samples are also possible but much less widely used nowadays. The main difference between saliva and blood lies in the method employed to collect the sample. The procedure to collect blood is somewhat invasive, and in the least, requires a small lancet prick to enable extraction of a droplet of blood. Alternatively, a physician or qualified medical professional can draw blood from the forearm with a syringe. On the other hand, the procedure to obtain a saliva sample is painless and non-invasive. As a result, saliva samples are the most frequently used and they are recommended in most cases.

Sampling kits can be obtained from the providers of the test who will normally mail you the kit at home or where requested. They can often be ordered by filling a simple on-line form and can be in your hands within a few days.

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5. Compiling the necessary information

The information required by the laboratory to perform a paternity test is generally limited to the sample donors' name, date of birth, gender and ethnic origin. Ethnic information may help the laboratory to interpret the statistical information on which certainty of results is based. It is usually optional since in the majority of cases it does not alter the statistical outcome substantially.

One person is generally identified as the primary requestor of the test. This is almost always the legal representative in the case of a Legal paternity test. In the case of the Curiosity paternity test it is generally one of the sample donors, although the person may be anyone to which all parties consent. This representative is responsible to liaise with the laboratory to obtain the sample kit, pay for the test, send the sample package, and receive and distribute the test results.

Most, but not all, laboratories require every sample donor to sign a consent form specifically permitting the laboratory to perform the necessary tests and to issue the results to the primary requestor. This is mainly for ethical reasons, since a person's DNA represents a unique identity code that should be considered as the person's private property. The procurement of a sample from a person for the purpose of a DNA analysis without his or her consent thus constitutes theft of identity.

In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to provide samples from a person without his knowledge or consent (view the Human Tissue Act http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2004/20040030.htm). If you have a doubt we recommend contacting your local authority in the matter.

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6. Collecting samples

Saliva samples (also called oral swabs, mouth swabs, or buccal swabs)

The procedure to obtain a saliva sample is simple and painless, and for this reason these types of samples are the most commonly used. The sampling kit generally includes a number of mouth swabs/ The sampling procedure involves rubbing the swab gently against the gums and the side of the mouth to collect a mixture of saliva and loose skin cells that contain the necessary DNA. The swab is then allowed to dry for about 20 minutes to 1 hour depending on the weather conditions prevailing. Once dry, the swab is placed in an envelope and the sample is ready for dispatch to the lab.

GOOD TO HAVE A LINK TO OUR SITE WHERE THE INSTRUCTIONS STEP BY STEP ARE SHOWN

Tips for successful saliva sampling:

• It is important to make sure that the sample is correctly labelled with the name or code number of the donor.
• To avoid contamination of the sample it is of utmost importance to use a new swab for each donor and not to touch the filter paper directly.
• Since the sample collection procedure is so simple it is worthwhile taking more than one sample per donor to assure there are adequate amounts of sample for each donor.
• Avoid eating, drinking and smoking for one or two hours before sampling since food and drink may compromise the quality of the sample.

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7. Sending samples

The final step is to package the samples and the related rms gether and send them to the laboratory. In general, saliva samples and blood spots remain usable for several weeks. Whole blood samples have a much shorter lifespan and can only last for a few days at room temperature.

In order to ensure fast and safe door-to-door delivery it is lways better to send the samples through a reputable carrier that provides this type of service (e.g. FedEx, DHL, TNT, UPS, etc.). Delivery within 48 hours after taking the samples is recommended. Some providers have preferred shipping companies they work with and may also have special packaging procedures, so always be sure to follow the instructions they provide. Using a provider's suggested carrier may expedite the test because the two parties may have a special agreement to streamline delivery services. Cost of shipment is generally paid by the person sending the samples and not by the laboratory.

You will probably need to indicate the appropriate tariff classification on the package, as required for all human samples. These are:

For Saliva: HS3001.20.10.00
For Blood: HS3002.90.10.00

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